The inadequacies of American policy were painfully obvious. Both the and presidential election campaigns had seen strong criticisms by the victors of what their predecessors had done. Disarray, as a consequence, seemed the dominant theme. From the onset of the Cold War, the U. No president has a better claim than Ronald Reagan to having accomplished that task.
The idea that Kennan might one day praise the diplomacy of Ronald Reagan, or that Nitze would come around to favoring the abolition of nuclear weapons, would have seemed, back then, wildly improbable. The idea was to retain the initiative: in the terrain upon which the contest was to take place, the means by which it was to be conducted, and the balance between the costs encountered and the benefits derived.
All of these strategies, I argued, assumed limited, relatively inelastic means on the part of the United States and hence the need to bring interests into line with capabilities rather than the other way around.
That, in turn, meant differentiating clearly between vital and peripheral interests. Symmetrical containment, conversely, sought to address two glaring weaknesses of asymmetrical containment: its neglect of apparently peripheral areas that could, under unexpected circumstances, become vital, as had happened in with South Korea, and the apparent narrowness of the choice, in Korea and similar situations, between escalation, on the one harnd, and doing nothing at all, on the other.
The United States had to develop the capability to respond in all locations and by any means, the document argued, and through the stimulative effect of defense spending on the national economy, it could afford to do this. The Truman administration quickly embraced this strategy, with the result that defense spending tripled within a year. The classic public statement of symmetrical containment was of course John F. The proving ground for this strategy turned out to be the war in Vietnam, which Lyndon B.
Johnson justified because he believed that the means available to the United States could be expanded as needed and that the means of what appeared to be an insignificant adversary could not. What this led to, though, the advocates of asymmetrical containment might well have anticipated: relinquishing the initiative.
Because the United States resisted either escalation or withdrawal, it got stuck in a conflict in which the enemy controlled the nature and extent of the competition at every stage. Strategies of Containment ended with the Ford administration, although there was a brief epilogue on the Carter years.
What about Ronald Reagan, many people have asked? My answers are, respectively, yes and no. Yes, because the Reagan administration, unlike any other in the post—World War II era, did significantly increase the defense budget but without confining itself to responding in times and at places chosen by adversaries.
The home court advantage was not to go to the other side. No, because my distinction between the two forms of containment was never a theory of grand strategy, meant to apply in all situations in which there was an adversary to be contained. I intended it only as a generalization about the behavior of a particular set of American administrations—a pattern from which, as it turned out, Reagan and his advisers departed.
In doing so, they came closer to accomplishing the original objective of containment than any other administration during the Cold War. That goal, as Kennan had formulated it in , had been to persuade the Soviet leadership to change its own behavior so that there would be nothing left to contain. No president has a better claim than Reagan to having accomplished that task. The interesting question is whether this happened because his administration broke the mold—believing in both expandable means and asymmetrical response at the same time.
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